Influence of Colonists (Artists)
When 14th century English colonist and artist John White was sent to the Americas to visually document the peoples of the region, he was not excluded from the belief that cultures existing outside of the European, and particularly English “norm” were culturally, religious, and intellectually inferior. He brought these prejudiced perspectives with him when he set foot on the East Coast. White, and others like him, held a vision for English settlement in America – and it did not involve the “savage” Indians.
White’s limnings, like A festive dance, depict the East Coast Indigenous communities as pagans, which were unacceptable to English society. Several themes run throughout his depictions of Indigenous peoples. One of them is the dress and outfit. In the majority of White’s painting series, the Algonquin people are depicted as wearing liminal, revealing clothing – nearly nude. They are often depicted as wearing feathers sticking out of their heads, dancing sporadically, and with weapon-shaped objects in their hands. Whether or not these descriptions are historically accurate reside in the community and oral histories of the Algonquin peoples of the region. Although he depicts “ceremonies” and “rituals”, I and other Indigenous academics question his true involvement in these festivities. Ceremonial protocols have existed in communities since their respective creations. Did John White go through the process of being able to attend these ceremonies and rituals?
In examining White’s visual collection, it is important to note that the technological equipment used to capture these scenes were 1. a pen and 2. Paper. There was no photography at this stage. This begs the question: How “true” to the history are these images? Was John White simultaneously engaging in ceremonies and sketching what he saw? Or did White sketch after witnessing these events? Similarly, White initially drew sketches of Indigenous peoples and eventually added watercolor. It was unlikely he had access to the medium while in America. This begs the question: how accurate is the coloration of his portraits? Like in A festive dance, many of the Indigenous peoples White depicted were portrayed as having nearly red skin tones. Is this accurate?
Several subsequent colonists used the White paintings as a basis for their own works. The most notable examples are from Thomas Hariot and Theodor de Bry. Hariot, an English astronomer and writer, published the book The brief and true report of the new found land in Virginia in 1588. Within this book, Hariot analyzed the settlements established by English settler colonists and the relationship between the English and Indigenous peoples of the Virginia colony. While also using written reports from the colonists, Hariot also used John White’s paintings as part of his analysis. Within his report, he comes to similar conclusions that formed the basis of John White’s lens.
In analyzing the Indigenous peoples of the New England coast, Hariot frequently described the Indigenous peoples has being dressed in “strange fashion”, having “strange customs”. Though the rest of his analysis is relatively modest in comparison to other reports of Indigenous peoples, Hariot understood the investment that was at stake in his writing. His words were imperialistic, offering enough generality and neutrality to convince the rest of the English public that colonizing the Americas would be beneficial toward the public good – the same sentiment that was held as a means to colonize the Gaelic-Irish. If Hariott gathered enough “neutral” and in-depth observations of the Indians, the English would be able to colonize them more easily.
To summarize: Harriot had financial and imperialistic motives for offering semi-savage depictions of Native peoples.
The last major colonial influencer that I will explore the works of is Theodor de Bry, a non-English Belgian engraver. In the late 1500s, de Bry used both White and Hariots materials in combination with one another to purport his own narrative. As demonstrated in item 3, de Bry engraved the visual works of White. However, he modified many elements. de Bry whitened the skin tone of the Algonquin peoples, replaced their attire that more closely resembled Roman/European attire, and modified landscapes. In portraits that originally depicted Indigenous crops, de Bry replaced these with crops more familiar to Europeans such as wheat. Facial structures in several engravings were also changed in a way that was more aligned with English perceptions of the Irish and long-held notions of “paganism”. In several engravings, the Algonquin peoples are represented more closely to pagan gods and lore. de Bry added to his engravings quotes from Harriot’s book.
References:
Bushnell, Jr., David I. “John White: The First English Artist to Visit America, 1585 .” John White: The First English Artist to Visit America, 1585, April 1928, 124–34. https://www.proxy2.cl.msu.edujstor.org/stable/4244204.
Gershon, Olivia. Britain's blueprint for colonialism: Made in Ireland. JSOR Daily, January 29, 2022. https://daily.jstor.org/britains-blueprint-for-colonialism-made-in-ireland/.
White, John. A Festive Dance. The British Museum. Accessed 2023. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1906-0509-1-10.
Simon, Ed. “The Construction of America, in the Eyes of the English.” The construction of America, in the eyes of the English . JSTOR Daily, December 4, 2019. https://daily.jstor.org/the-construction-of-america-in-the-eyes-of-the-english/.